Operant conditioning - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Diagram of operant conditioning.
1 Operant Conditioning (Lecture 6) II. Operant Conditioning A. Skinner’s Analysis B F Skinner expanded the Law of Effect in the 1940s and 1950s into a system called Operant Conditioning. Operant Conditioning is learning. Skinner introduces the Operant Conditioning Theory. Check the Operant Conditioning Theory article and presentation to find more. Operant conditioning (also called . In operant conditioning, stimuli present when a behavior is rewarded or punished come to control that behavior. For example, a child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside, or learn to avoid touching a hot stove; the box and the stove are discriminative stimuli. However, in classical conditioning, stimuli that signal significant events produces reflexive behavior. For example, the sight of a colorful wrapper comes to signal . With repeated trials ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more frequently, so the cats escaped more and more quickly. Thorndike generalized this finding in his law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated and those that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. In short, some consequences strengthen behavior and some consequences weaken behavior. By plotting escape time against trial number Thorndike produced the first known animal learning curves through this procedure. That is, responses are retained when they lead to a successful outcome and discarded when they do not, or when they produce aversive effects. This usually happens without being planned by any . Following the ideas of Ernst Mach, Skinner rejected Thorndike's reference to unobservable mental states such as satisfaction, building his analysis on observable behavior and its equally observable consequences. Unlike Thorndike's puzzle box, this arrangement allowed the subject to make one or two simple, repeatable responses, and the rate of such responses became Skinner's primary behavioral measure. These records were the primary data that Skinner and his colleagues used to explore the effects on response rate of various reinforcement schedules. He also drew on many less formal observations of human and animal behavior. Skinner defined new functional relationships such as . Thus one may ask why it happens in the first place. The answer to this question is like Darwin's answer to the question of the origin of a . Similarly, the behavior of an individual varies from moment to moment, in such aspects as the specific motions involved, the amount of force applied, or the timing of the response. Variations that lead to reinforcement are strengthened, and if reinforcement is consistent, the behavior tends to remain stable. However, behavioral variability can itself be altered through the manipulation of certain variables. These terms are defined by their effect on behavior. Either may be positive or negative, as described below. Positive Reinforcement and Negative Reinforcement increase the probability of a behavior that they follow, while Positive Punishment and Negative Punishment reduce the probability of behaviour that they follow. There is an additional procedure. Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with either positive or negative reinforcement. During extinction the behavior becomes less probable. Thus there are a total of five basic consequences - Positive reinforcement (reinforcement): This occurs when a behavior (response) is rewarding or the behavior is followed by another stimulus that is rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior. This procedure is usually called simply reinforcement. Negative reinforcement (escape): This occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, the aversive stimulus might be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the box; negative reinforcement would happen when the rat presses a lever, turning off the noise. Positive punishment: (also referred to as . Positive punishment is a rather confusing term, and usually the procedure is simply called . For example, a rat is first given food many times for lever presses. Typically the rat continues to press more and more slowly and eventually stops, at which time lever pressing is said to be . Also, reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the laboratory. Naturally occurring consequences can also reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not always planned or delivered by people. Factors that alter the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment. The opposite effect will occur if the individual becomes deprived of that stimulus: the effectiveness of a consequence will then increase. If someone is not hungry, food will not be an effective reinforcer for behavior. If one gives a dog a treat for . Learning may be slower if reinforcement is intermittent, that is, following only some instances of the same response, but responses reinforced intermittently are usually much slower to extinguish than are responses that have always been reinforced. Humans and animals engage in a sort of . A tiny amount of food may not . A pile of quarters from a slot machine may keep a gambler pulling the lever longer than a single quarter. Most of these factors serve biological functions. For example, the process of satiation helps the organism maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis). When an organism has been deprived of sugar, for example, the taste of sugar is a highly effective reinforcer. However, when the organism's blood sugar reaches or exceeds an optimum level the taste of sugar becomes less effective, perhaps even aversive. Shaping. It depends on operant variability and reinforcement, as described above. The trainer starts by identifying the desired final (or . Next, the trainer chooses a behavior that the animal or person already emits with some probability. The form of this behavior is then gradually changed across successive trials by reinforcing behaviors that approximate the target behavior more and more closely. When the target behavior is finally emitted, it may be strengthened and maintained by the use of a schedule of reinforcement (see below). Stimulus control of operant behavior. Such stimuli are called . That is, discriminative stimuli set the occasion for responses that produce reward or punishment. Thus, a rat may be trained to press a lever only when a light comes on; a dog rushes to the kitchen when it hears the rattle of its food bag; a child reaches for candy when she sees it on a table. Behavioral sequences: conditioned reinforcement and chaining. The scope of operant analysis is expanded through the idea of behavioral chains, which are sequences of responses bound together by the three- term contingencies defined above. Chaining is based on the fact, experimentally demonstrated, that a discriminative stimulus not only sets the occasion for subsequent behavior, but it can also reinforce a behavior that precedes it. That is, a discriminative stimulus is also a . For example, the light that sets the occasion for lever pressing may be used to reinforce . This results in the sequence . Much longer chains can be built by adding more stimuli and responses. Escape and Avoidance. For example, shielding one's eyes from sunlight terminates the (aversive) stimulation of bright light in one's eyes. Avoidance behavior raises the so- called ? This question is addressed by several theories of avoidance (see below). Two kinds of experimental settings are commonly used: discriminated and free- operant avoidance learning. Discriminated avoidance learning. After the neutral stimulus appears an operant response such as a lever press prevents or terminate the aversive stimulus. In early trials the subject does not make the response until the aversive stimulus has come on, so these early trials are called . As learning progresses, the subject begins to respond during the neutral stimulus and thus prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring. Such trials are called . In this situation, unlike discriminated avoidance, no prior stimulus signals the shock. Two crucial time intervals determine the rate of avoidance learning. This first is the S- S (shock- shock) interval. This is time between successive shocks in the absence of a response. The second interval is the R- S (response- shock) interval. This specifies the time by which an operant response delays the onset of the next shock. Note that each time the subject performs the operant response, the R- S interval without shock begins anew. Two- process theory of avoidance. Two processes are involved: classical conditioning of the signal followed by operant conditioning of the escape response: a) Classical conditioning of fear. Initially the organism experiences the pairing of a CS (conditioned stimulus) with an aversive US (unconditioned stimulus). The theory assumes that this pairing creates an association between the CS and the US through classical conditioning and, because of the aversive nature of the US, the CS comes to elicit a conditioned emotional reaction (CER) . As a result of the first process, the CS now signals fear; this unpleasant emotional reaction serves to motivate operant responses, and responses that terminate the CS are reinforced by fear termination. Note that the theory does not say that the organism . Several experimental findings seem to run counter to two- factor theory. For example, avoidance behavior often extinguishes very slowly even when the initial CS- US pairing never occurs again, so the fear response might be expected to extinguish (see Classical conditioning). Further, animals that have learned to avoid often show little evidence of fear, suggesting that escape from fear is not necessary to maintain avoidance behavior. In this view the idea of . Thus, in avoidance, the consequence of a response is a reduction in the rate of aversive stimulation. Indeed, experimental evidence suggests that a . For example, a rat comes to . Noncontingent reinforcement may be used in an attempt to reduce an undesired target behavior by reinforcing multiple alternative responses while extinguishing the target response.
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It was succeeded by Windows 7, which was released to manufacturing on 2. July 2. 00. 9 and released worldwide for retail on 2. October 2. 00. 9. New features of Windows Vista include an updated graphical user interface and visual style dubbed Aero, a new search component called Windows Search, redesigned networking, audio, print and display sub- systems, and new multimedia tools such as Windows DVD Maker. Vista aimed to increase the level of communication between machines on a home network, using peer- to- peer technology to simplify sharing files and media between computers and devices. Windows Vista included version 3. NET Framework, allowing software developers to write applications without traditional Windows APIs. Microsoft's primary stated objective with Windows Vista was to improve the state of security in the Windows operating system. In light of this, Microsoft chairman Bill Gates announced in early 2. Criticism of Windows Vista has targeted its high system requirements, its more restrictive licensing terms, the inclusion of a number of, then, new DRM technologies aimed at restricting the copying of protected digital media, lack of compatibility with some pre- Vista hardware and software, longer boot time, and the number of authorization prompts for User Account Control. As a result of these and other issues, Windows Vista had seen initial adoption and satisfaction rates lower than Windows XP. It was originally expected to ship sometime late in 2. Windows XP and Blackcomb, which was planned to be the company's next major operating system release. Gradually, . In some builds of Longhorn, their license agreement said . Many of Microsoft's developers were also re- tasked to build updates to Windows XP and Windows Server 2. Faced with ongoing delays and concerns about feature creep, Microsoft announced on 2. August 2. 00. 4, that it had revised its plans. In Vista there is a power button in the bottom right hand corner. This allows all the pending updates to be installed and then once the update process is completed. Windows 8 is the latest Operating System from Microsoft which has got lot of new features are being discussed on the web. Following are the Differences between. Difference between system software and application software For this reason, Longhorn was reset to start work on componentizing the Windows Server 2. Service Pack 1 codebase, and over time re- incorporating the features that would be intended for an actual operating system release. However, some previously announced features such as Win. FS were dropped or postponed, and a new software development methodology called the Security Development Lifecycle was incorporated in an effort to address concerns with the security of the Windows codebase, which is programmed in C, C++ and assembly. Longhorn became known as Vista in 2. During this period, Microsoft was fairly quiet about what was being worked on, as their marketing and public relations focus was more strongly focused on Windows XP, and Windows Server 2. April 2. 00. 3. Occasional builds of Longhorn were leaked onto popular file sharing networks such as IRC, Bit. Torrent, e. Donkey and various newsgroups, and so most of what is known about builds prior to the first sanctioned development release of Longhorn in May 2. After several months of relatively little news or activity from Microsoft with Longhorn, Microsoft released Build 4. Internet around 2. If you count all the Windows 8 32bit and 64 bit versions along with the Pro and Enterprise editions, there ends up being a dizzying array of versions. The difference between windows 7 x86 (x32) to Windows 7 x64 Ultimate x64! When you consider Windows versions, you might immediately think of the Home or Pro editions Is a Windows 10 Pro Upgrade Worth $99? Is a Windows 10 Pro Upgrade Worth. February 2. 00. 3. As an evolutionary release over build 3. An optional . The incorporation of the Plex theme made blue the dominant color of the entire application. The Windows XP- style task pane was almost completely replaced with a large horizontal pane that appeared under the toolbars. A new search interface allowed for filtering of results, searching of Windows help, and natural- language queries that would be used to integrate with Win. FS. The animated search characters were also removed. File metadata was also made more visible and more easily editable, with more active encouragement to fill out missing pieces of information. Also of note was the conversion of Windows Explorer to being a . NET application. Most builds of Longhorn and Vista were identified by a label that was always displayed in the bottom- right corner of the desktop. A typical build label would look like . Higher build numbers did not automatically mean that the latest features from every development team at Microsoft was included. Typically, a team working on a certain feature or subsystem would generate their own working builds which developers would test with, and when the code was deemed stable, all the changes would be incorporated back into the main development tree at once. At Microsoft, a number of . The name of the lab in which any given build originated is shown as part of the build label, and the date and time of the build follows that. Some builds (such as Beta 1 and Beta 2) only display the build label in the version information dialog (Winver). The icons used in these builds are from Windows XP. At the Windows Hardware Engineering Conference (Win. HEC) in May 2. 00. Microsoft gave their first public demonstrations of the new Desktop Window Manager and Aero. The demonstrations were done on a revised build 4. A number of sessions for developers and hardware engineers at the conference focused on these new features, as well as the Next- Generation Secure Computing Base (previously known as . Also at this conference, Microsoft reiterated their roadmap for delivering Longhorn, pointing to an . Internally, some Microsoft employees were describing the Longhorn project as . It offered only a limited subset of features planned for Longhorn, in particular fast file searching and integrated graphics and sound processing, but appeared to have impressive reliability and performance compared to contemporary Longhorn builds. Allchin went on to explain how in December 2. Brian Valentine and Amitabh Srivastava, the former being experienced with shipping software at Microsoft, most notably Windows Server 2. Future Longhorn builds would start from Windows Server 2. Service Pack 1 and continue from there. This change, announced internally to Microsoft employees on 2. August 2. 00. 4, began in earnest in September, though it would take several more months before the new development process and build methodology would be used by all of the development teams. A number of complaints came from individual developers, and Bill Gates himself, that the new development process was going to be prohibitively difficult to work within. As Windows Vista. By approximately November 2. In the end, Microsoft chose Windows Vista as confirmed on 2. July 2. 00. 5, believing it to be a . That's what Windows Vista is all about: . In September of that year, Microsoft started releasing regular Community Technology Previews (CTP) to beta testers from July 2. February 2. 00. 6. The first of these was distributed at the 2. Microsoft Professional Developers Conference, and was subsequently released to beta testers and Microsoft Developer Network subscribers. The builds that followed incorporated most of the planned features for the final product, as well as a number of changes to the user interface, based largely on feedback from beta testers. Windows Vista was deemed feature- complete with the release of the . Beta 2, released in late May, was the first build to be made available to the general public through Microsoft's Customer Preview Program. It was downloaded by over five million people. Two release candidates followed in September and October, both of which were made available to a large number of users. The UEFI 2. 0 specification (which replaces EFI 1. Microsoft's announcement, no firmware manufacturers had completed a production implementation which could be used for testing. As a result, the decision was made to postpone the introduction of UEFI support to Windows; support for UEFI on 6. Vista Service Pack 1 and Windows Server 2. UEFI would not be supported, as Microsoft does not expect many such systems to be built as the market moves to 6. Because a release to manufacturing (RTM) build is the final version of code shipped to retailers and other distributors, the purpose of a pre- RTM build is to eliminate any last . Thus, it is unlikely that any major new features would be introduced; instead, work would focus on Vista's . In just a few days, developers had managed to drop Vista's bug count from over 2. September to just over 1. RC2 shipped in early October. However, they still had a way to go before Vista was ready to RTM. Microsoft's internal processes required Vista's bug count to drop to 5. RTM. During a demonstration of the speech recognition feature new to Windows Vista at Microsoft's Financial Analyst Meeting on 2. July 2. 00. 6, the software recognized the phrase . After several failed attempts to correct the error, the sentence eventually became . On 1. 6 November 2. Microsoft made the final build available to MSDN and Technet Plus subscribers. Laptop users report, however, that enabling Aero shortens battery life. A search box appears in every Explorer window. The address bar has been replaced with a breadcrumb navigation bar. Icons of certain file types in Windows Explorer are . The preview pane allows users to see thumbnails of various files and view the contents of documents. The details pane shows information such as file size and type, and allows viewing and editing of embedded tags in supported file formats. The Start menu has changed as well; incorporating an instant search box, and the All Programs list uses a horizontal scroll bar instead of the cascading flyout menu seen in Windows XP. Gadgets can also be placed on the desktop. IE7 in Windows Vista runs in isolation from other applications in the operating system (protected mode); exploits and malicious software are restricted from writing to any location beyond Temporary Internet Files without explicit user consent. Windows Media Player 1. Microsoft's program for playing and organizing music and video. New features in this version include word wheeling (incremental search or . Please check your email and click on the link to activate your account. Please confirm the information below before signing in. Already have an account? Your existing password has not been changed. World Health Organization Avenue Appia 20 CH - 1211 Geneva 27 Switzerland Related links. United Nations Vacancies; You are here: WHO Employment; Quick Links. A lack of education and skills training means fewer job. Factsheet containing learnings from CARE Australia's. VAM Factsheet - The Assessor; updated on. Indonesia - Food Security Monitoring Bulletin (Special Focus: La Ni World Food Programme Fighting Hunger Worldwide. Cambodia; India; Indonesia. WFP is the world's largest humanitarian agency fighting hunger. This is page No 1 of the ALL jobs. ALL jobs on UN Job List. World Food Programme Country: South Africa . Cambodia jobs,jobs in Cambodia,employment opportunities,Recruitment,job search in Cambodia,free job. Cambodia sits on mainland. World Vision’s child sponsorship program plays a vital role. Knowledge in project and program. World Vision Cambodia is committed to the. Tourism Cambodia offering jobs from World Food Programme in Cambodia. The Diagnostic Microbiology Development Program. World Food Programme: World Vision. The World Food Programme. |
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